![]() However, the neural connections of the auricular muscles with the brainstem and other deep brain structures are intact ( 5– 7), and these muscles are easily accessible for wearable neuroprosthetics. In postnatal humans, they are rarely under voluntary control ( 2, 4). ![]() These muscles have been considered vestigial in humans, though it has been suggested that during development in the womb they may exert forces on the cartilage and affect the shaping of the ear ( 2, 3). The extrinsic muscles are the posterior auricular muscle (PAM), superior auricular muscle (SAM), and anterior auricular muscle (AAM), whereas the intrinsic muscles are the helicis major (HMJM) and minor (HMNM), tragicus (TR), anti-tragicus (ATR), transverse auricular muscle (TAM), and oblique (OAM) muscles. The auricle of humans and other mammals contains three extrinsic and six intrinsic muscles ( 1, 2). The aims of this review are (1) to provide a detailed account of the neural networks of the extrinsic and intrinsic auricular muscles, (2) to describe diagnostic and therapeutic functions of these muscles as demonstrated in the current literature, and (3) to outline existing and potential neuroprosthetic applications making use of the auricular muscles and their neural networks. The functionality of these auricular muscles remains elusive and requires further experimentation for a more in-depth understanding of their anatomy. They can also serve as a bio-controller of human neuroprosthetics. However, numerous therapeutic and diagnostic wearable devices are designed to monitor and alleviate the symptoms of neurological disorders, brainstem injuries, emotional states, and auditory functions, by making use of the neural networks of the auricular muscles and their locations, which are easily accessible for ergonomic wearable biomedical devices. These muscles have been considered vestigial in humans. There are three extrinsic auricular muscles-the posterior, superior, and anterior auricular muscles-and six intrinsic muscles-the helicis major and minor, tragicus, anti-tragicus, transverse and oblique muscles. The mammalian external ear houses extrinsic and intrinsic auricular muscles. Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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